Planning as
a tool for achieving rapid economic growth, progress of people and development
of national identity has been prevalent in India. Modern, rational, scientific
planning, when it was introduced after independence, had a definite meaning.
1.
Planning was seen as the (only) method of achieving
rapid economic growth and equitable distribution of wealth so as to bring large
population out of deep abject poverty.
2.
Planning was also to support the social, cultural and
political progress of people to achieve Social Justice.
The failure
of removing poverty of people is evident. Large population continues to live in
inhuman conditions and abject poverty and there seems to be no hope in near
future for any concrete solutions. The social, political and cultural goals are
as distant as they used to be. In addition to these new severe problems, like
rapid growth and management of population, rapid uncontrolled urbanization,
environmental and health issue have emerged. Social justice has remained a
distant dream.
Despite
some spectacular successes and achievements in few fields and expansion of
democratic institutional base, the failure is visible and real. Among the other
reasons and causes of the failures, policy of planning has come under severe
attack.
Planning
community comprising economic planners, social sector planners and urban
planners are personally and collectively blamed for the gross failure. Attack
on planners is on two grounds. a) The failure of planners is seen as lack of
their ability to plan b) Planners integrity is challenged and they are seen as
corrupt. The planning community is seen as biased and pro rich. The planners,
as part of bureaucracy, are also seen as selfish, narrow minded and engaged in
corrupt practices working hand in glove with the corrupt political class.
It is
evident from the popular belief that the planning community is blamed for the
failure rather than the planning as tool of directing change. Planning with its
traditional meaning is still viewed essential tool and important in the
governance and directing change. There are also efforts to improve planning by
making it more rational and efficient by generating more data, refining
methodologies, giving planners modern powerful equipment like computers etc.
However the improvement in planning is not perceived by people.
The popular
image of planner has grain of truth though the attack on the behavior of whole
planning community is not justified. Popular perceptions cannot be foundation
for critical inquiry.
In face of
the severe attack and failures, planning community has developed two kinds of
responses. a) Planning community has lost its earlier confidence and positive
self-image. The community has gone into a defensive mode. They see their work
as tentative and appear unsure of the results. b) At the same time to combat
this situation, planning community has grown is size and expanded its
operations across many fields, in specialized sectors. This expansion has not
necessarily improved its effectiveness. On the contrary the quality has taken a
beating and further weakened the community.
Planning in
such a situation is seen as a routine work like a ritual to be performed
without understanding the relevance and meaning of their acts. This ritual is
viewed as essential because there are no alternatives or strategies seen
available. The alternatives if available are not creatively explored.
Degeneration
of planning into ritual has other costs. The ensuing atmosphere and environment
is not restorative and this acts as deterrent to the creative minds. The
prevailing dilemma inhibits truthful inquiry by planners. Experimenting,
adventure, exploration, testing of new ideas and alternative path finding
expeditions are looked down. Young, newly trained, enthusiastic, energetic
people not only shy away form the profession but those who join are either
forced out of the system or they are rendered ineffective through punishing
mechanism. No new leadership is seen emerging to protect the planning in India.
The aim of this paper is to look at planning with an
open mind and search for the reasons for such degradation.
This paper
will try to address two central issues related to planning.
1)
Has the modernist, rational planning framework become
limiting factor for planning profession?
2)
What kind of restorative environment is essential and
needs to be promoted?
Planning for progress had
acquired almost magical and sacred connotations for the newly liberated
countries like India in the middle of the last century. The devastated
traditional cultures and societies had been struggling to find foot in the
newly emerging world after the war. The struggle for freedom was the foremost
priority for the majority. But even before the freedom dawned in India,
Planning for the future was already on the agenda of charismatic leaders like
Nehru. He had a grand vision of building India in to a modern nation with the
help of science, technology and planning. It was not a dream of building
powerful nation to dominate the world but of building a peaceful nation
participating in promotion of just world. It was dream of banishing poverty and
lifting poor population from pre-industrial colonial traditional cast ridden
and mindset and heralding it in the modern world, with minimum damage.
The poverty-ridden
populations in tattered clothes and shattered homes were led to victory by
unorthodox struggle to freedom, based on Gandhian principles rooted in Ahimsa
(Non-violence). Survival in the hostile world and developing a modern nation
was an unenviable complex task. Nothing of the traditional world, the religion,
culture, economy, social systems and the slow pace of evolution appeared
relevant. There were far too many goals to be achieved. Everything local looked
so irrational, irrelevant, defeated and obsolete that not to be attracted by
the achievements of the align rulers, who could destroy and govern the Indian
sub continent for more than three centuries, was unavoidable. Colonial rule had
also heralded new ideals of equality and democracy in India. Ultimately the
country had to be taken in future and not back in historical times! It was not
that the spectacular success of western countries was attractive but western
methods of achieving economic success also made sense in the chaotic and
complex world environment as the only available alternative. Rational planning
equipped with tools of science and technology almost became a new religion. The
new religion was pressed in service of construction of Modern Temples. The new
God had new priests to bless the country with prosperity, the planners.
National political
leadership had full trust in democratic, liberal and secular basis of state.
Imperative of these had worked against total control by the state. The goals of
democracy, personal freedom and social justice cannot be really identified as
planning goals like economic planning is. But these are important guiding
principles. It was also well known fact
that the Indian society had suffered internally due to the rigid cast system,
which had killed the initiative at individual level. Personal freedom and
status were related to cast system. People trusted fate better than the human
action. Social peace was at the cost of rigid social hierarchy and total
submission of majority of people to the religious doctrines as preached by the
upper casts. In fact, it was believed by some that the major factor in
surrender of a powerful culture to the alien power, without much of resistance
was due to this attitude of a passive society. However during the freedom
struggle it was amply proved that the ordinary citizens were not so passive,
they did have a strong will to challenge alien rule through peaceful actions
and non-violent struggle. When opportunity came, they proved their capacity to
comprehend and act.
Other major consideration
for the government policy was that most of the Indian population resided in
large number of villages. Rural areas totally depended on the traditional
agriculture. Agricultural production was entirely governed by the vagaries of
the Monsoon rains. Restoration of the agriculture through land distribution and
modernization was of major concern. Unlike China, India with great
geographical, social variations deliberately chose not to follow the path of
collectivization and central planning for the agriculture sector. Local
initiative and local actions were to be trusted and encouraged. Indirectly,
this could be linked to the principle of Ahimsa, principle of not causing pain.
One can trace this principle to the Buddhist Philosophy of Middle Path. For
many observers, like Frankel (1978) this Indian planning strategy appeared as a
paradox of accommodative politics and radical social change.
The
Middle path
A sort of hybrid of planning
strategy was evolved by the Government, which comprises
a)
The large and powerful public sector made responsible
for the creation of modern industrial base for the economy
b)
The private sector which functioned like in the market
economy in urban areas and mainly active in a consumer goods production, and
c)
The large agricultural sector comprising of poor
farmers and supported by state in its initiative to form co-operative
organizations, the middle sector.
The Starting point of all
the three sectors was the economic development and investment. Relation between
economic development with its relatively well developed rational methodology
and the other goals i.e. of social progress and creation of foundation for
democratic institutions were expected to be addressed by the individual and local
strategies. The physical planning aspects of the development approach was
rather under developed and weak. It was generally expected that such approach
would eventually evolve through the activities and goals themselves. To help
the development of spatial planning few national examples were to guide as
models. Construction of new towns like Chandigarh is a prominent example.
Economic development and planning today
Today India is self
sufficient in food production. It has successfully averted the tragedies of
past like famine deaths. The Green Revolution was made possible because of the
synergy of government and independent farming community. Together they have
successfully achieved food production capacity, sufficient enough for the
growing population. This was made possible because of the proactive management
of water, introduction of modern farming technology like hybrid seed, chemical
fertilizers, cropping practices and active involvement of small, medium and
large farm owners who were guided by the dedicated and committed public sector
and government officials. Important and essential production of basic
industries like steel, metals, machinery, fertilizers and infrastructure like
dams, reservoirs, distribution canals highways, and electricity was entrusted
to the public sector and its successes in the early phase vindicated the vision
of planners. But after initial successes great strains have appeared in the
economy. Loss incurring bureaucracy replaced profiteering capitalist class in
the name of socialist planning. (Sane 2000)
Urban planning is no
exception to this general planning story. Insistence of the modernist rational,
comprehensive planning (both Marxist and capital liberal) that view cities like
machines that can be predicted, planned, controlled and engineered (Portugali
2000) is all the more dominant and prevalent in India.
Reality Today
Traversing this middle path
approach, planning in India did help in creation of some pockets of success.
Whether the success can be attributed to the planning is a point of debate. It
is also true that India has been successful in remaining firm on the ideology
of democracy despite doubts expressed by many. Unprecedented challenges like
war with neighboring country demanding great funds for defense, ongoing
terrorism, yearly natural calamities like floods, earthquake, typhoons,
population pressure, economic crises, oil shocks rock the state time to time.
Problem of poverty has persisted. Large
masses of people still remain illiterate and structural inequalities have
appeared and are putting pressure on the national fabric. Paucity of funds for
development and pressures from international funding agencies are putting pressure for liberation of economy while the
organized labor and traditional left is joined by right wing in opposing state
on liberalization and globalization issues. Religious fundamentalism some times
gets upper hand. Environmental lobby challenges each and every development
project. Cities and metropolises are growing and the quality of life deteriorating.
Economic division of society is becoming sharper. Unemployment is continuing at
high rates. No wonder the planning in such a chaotic and complex situation is
rather like a ritual. The goals are set, funds get allocated and work started
but there is no guarantee of timely completion or of the costs. Description of
India by American Hi commissioner and economist J.K. Galbraith as “functioning
anarchy” is still fit qualification for the country. What appeared as anarchy
could also be termed as chaos and complexity which has attracted scientist’s
attention only in last two decades and its potential is yet to be fully
explored and understood.
Planning Dilemma
Planning experiences of
other countries and those of developed countries are always an important source
of reference for Indian planners. Today the planning dilemma appears to be
universal. While referring to some successful examples, basic underlying
dilemma of planning has not really been understood by the Indian planners.
Globalizing economy is not only affecting and hurting poor nations but it is
equally painful or more so for the developed economies. Powerful global cities
like New York and London passed through a very difficult phase in the later
part of twentieth century. The surplus of unused, obsolete harbor sites lay
like lead weights on the shoulders of city administrations and city planners
and designers. A large civil engineering infrastructure of quays, harbors,
piers and docks became absolutely useless in the blink of the eye. (Hankel
2000)
After studying the
developments of planning theory in advanced countries, it is no surprise that
India has not been successful in planning and controlling the development as it
intended! Looking at the history of planning one can understand how this
pattern of failure is quite understandable. After the grand failure of planning
experiment of Soviet Union the Indian failures appear trivial and its
achievements greater!
History of planning is well
documented in the book by John Friedman. As traced by him, various stages in
development of planning theory build up the dilemma. At each stage, planning is
challenged by new problems. Every subsequent stage in theoretical development
of planning appears to be linked to previous stage of failure. Each stage is a
new learning process, trying to find new ways to overcome the theoretical
limitations appearing in the planning process and removing them. But at no
place basic underlying principals are challenged by Friedman (1985)
Planning started as in India
based on the theoretical premise of the public policy promoted by planners in
the West. The roots of planning are firmly embedded in the then prevalent
scientific, rational, mechanistic Western worldview. Rigorous application of
universal, rational, scientific planning methods, built on empirical,
quantitative methods was seen as capable of solving problems facing humanity.
Prescription of right solutions, at right time, in right quantities was most
important to cure human societies. The planning theory was considered
revolutionary tool, which was applied to craft economic as well as physical
planning policies. When certain failures appeared in the delivery of results,
Policy analysis was applied rigorously. As human nature and society defied the
planning, social learning of Planners was promoted. When the new learning and
social knowledge failed to provide the expected results, planners were advised
to get engaged in social activism. Participatory approach of planning is
embedded in this new planning methodology. It is evident that large funds were
allocated and large number of planners and theoreticians worked simultaneously
to solve the mystery of ineffectual planning. Till today the results have
eluded the planners and the planning theory. The prescription of activism of
planners also has to be viewed with skepticism.
“ I propose to challenge the
widely held assumption that politically committed intellectuals are the best
(or indeed only) guardians of public weal, champions of the poor, and
protectors of national interests. The weakness of this assumption is that it
ignores the class interests of intellectuals themselves”. (Attwood 1992) This
can very well apply to the planning community.
“An ideology is at peak of
its strength when a) its ideological claims are fully accepted by society as if
they belong to the domain of natural phenomenon b) as a consequence of above
when they are embedded in societies political structure. Both aspects hold in
case of modern urban and regional planning. Its (false conscious) mechanistic
view of predictable, controllable and thus plannable cities and urbanism is
generally accepted as an unquestionable truism, and as a consequence, urban and
regional planning administrations, practices and law are built in line with
this false truism. This is so in both capitalist societies with their free
markets and authoritative communist societies and their planned economy and
society.” (Portugali 2000)
Search of New Directions in new, fast changing Globalizing Economy
In his yet unpublished work
(available on internet) Jessop discusses the emerging concept of Globalization,
Entrepreneurial Cities, and the Social Economy. “Rather than considering
globalization in isolation, it should be understood in terms of its complex
interrelation with trends on spatial scale. These include trend like
localization, regionalization, the growth of cross border linkages, and the
development of transnational urban networks. We must recognize the multicentric
nature of globalization.”
Some of new directions
planners are exploring in the western world are pointing to local contextual
examples and phenomenon, which are also observed in India. While centralized
planning is under strain, isolated examples are gaining success because they
are dislocated from centralized planning practice. They are locally successful
because they are rooted in their uniquely contextual history in society and
culture. They are results of enterprising actions of participants. Entrepreneureship is defined as creation of
opportunities for surplus profit through new combinations or innovation.
(Schumpeter 1934) It is also shift from urban managerialism to urban
entrepreneurialism (Harvey 1989)
Schumepeter
listed several ways in which innovation can occur:
1) The introduction of a new
good- that which is not familiar or new quality of a good. 2) The introduction
of a new method of production. 3) Opening of new market 4) The conquest of new
source of supply of raw material 5) The carrying out of the new organization of
any industry.
Entrepreneurial, Informal, Self Planning Communities
in India
This is the way most Indian
communities have been planning! This processes is going on in India for quite
some time. But it is not observed as linked to some kind of phenomenon. The
examples have not been part of conscious studies by planning theorist may be
because they are not strictly planned. Some individuals, some villages, towns,
and localities have been successful in transforming themselves because of their
unique social cultural formations. It is a process of self-planning. Many
people have successfully exploited available resources, individually or
collectively, in enterprising way as described by Schumpeter.
One of the better known and
observed examples is of cooperative movement of Maharashtra for its success
(though not by urban planners). Many farmer’s cooperatives successfully
transformed their regions through integration of agriculture, Industry and
services. At each stage they were able to tap new opportunities better than
other areas. The Warana Nagar Village cooperative movement in Maharashtra has
many success stories to its credit. Recently it has been selected for a central
government Information Technology project for implementation. Where by each of
the 70 villages from this area attached to the successful Co-operative movement
will get a rural IT center witch will be manned by local trained residents and
each will serve the farming community as well as all the residents for a small
fee. Special software developed in local language will help the villagers in
getting all information like land records, tax demands, banking services via
Internet, etc. Besides these centers will also help student community. Warana
Nagar already has a sugar factory, dairy and milk based production industry, a
super market run by women, Engineering college all in the cooperative sector in
the rural area. 70 villages of this group enjoy highest per capita income in
India. In addition to this, local community has asked permission to set up a
environmentally clean power generating plant in Co-op. Sector using natural
gas, which has been granted permission as the power sector is now getting freed
from oppression monopolistic hold of public sector.
By binding people together
in long-term, multilevel game, organizations increase the number and importance
of future interactions, and thereby promote the emergence of cooperation among
groups too large to interact individually. This in turn leads to the evolution
of organizations for the handling of larger and more complex issues. (Axelrod
1984)
Cooperative movement in
Maharashtra has attracted many economists. It has been studied extensively for
its economic success. Spatial effects need to be studied for its effects on
urbanism. It is termed as Revolution from the Middle (Attwood 1992)
Other common examples are
from a category, which are generally recognized as informal sector of the
economy. Individual initiatives, individual small ideas are developed with no
help from formal economic sector but only through the community support. A
Konkan area fisherman, who is employed by a new large scale, modern shrimp
farm, has established a small fish farm in his one-acre land with some funds
from a friend. His investment in the farm is half of that of the large farm and
his rate of return is larger than the farm he works for. Small inexpensive
innovation, family help, traditional knowledge of fishing has made him very
successful. In Gujarath, poor women were each was given a cow as capital. They
made the legendary success story of AMUL products. And the village women have
ushered in the White revolution in India, simultaneously improving their own
standard of living, much similar in nature to the green revolution ushered in
by Punjab Farmers. Poor women from Mumbai who started supplying food from their
homes for poor textile mill workers and helped by a woman activist now form an
organization of 100000 members called Annapoorna. Similar organization SEWA,
(Self Employed Women’s Association) of women from Ahmedabad is one on the most
successful NGO involved with women. The views of SEVA woman were greatly
acclaimed by President Clinton and Bill gates in a recent conference in USA.
Effects of such small, rural
regenerative processes are getting reflected, albeit in small percent, in the
census data. Reduction of growth rate of urbanization in India is one such
important evidence. (3.89% in 1971-81 to 2.91% in 1981-91) Some areas in
coastal Maharashtra (which I studied in last year) are experiencing this
regeneration of rural economy through reduction of poverty and growth of
economic diversity, after the introduction of Konkan railway in 1995. The
coastal region is already experiencing a small scale Blue revolution (Fishing
industry in cooperative sector)
Comparison of two approaches to Development
A comparison of the
prevailing modern planning (planning with theory) and informal planning
development (planning with guiding principles) is presented in the following
table. All the ideas put forward here are assembled from a wider debate going on
in various fields and not really tested and evaluated for their importance to
planning. Some of the processes are present sometimes and appear in different
combinations. However I think they are important for the progress of planning
theory in changing context.
Present planning perspective theory has developed in the western rational, scientific and related Economic theory developed in last two centuries. Creation of wealth has never been under estimated in the Eastern Philosophical thought of Buddhism. But the practice of building theory on one single principle, is inherently seen limited and leads to dilemma. Unitary emphasis on justice takes humanity on path of revenge. Unitary emphasis on Ahimsa takes humanity to Vairagya (total passivity) and unitary emphasis on wealth creation leads human society to uncontrollable consumerism. (Sane 2000)
So the main question is how to weave all the three aspects into the planning theory. It could be the most challenging task for human creative mind. Planning dilemma of today can be analyzed with these three principles which may not give easy, rule based, calculable solutions but can guide planners in their actions and judgements.
|
Planning
with Rational Theory (Only with W) |
Planning with Guiding Principles (A+W+J) |
|
Need expertise in Economic Planning theory |
Need expertise in understanding issues before plan. |
|
Planners start either from top or from bottom |
Planning can start from any middle level. |
|
Rational, quantitative, data based plan |
Other goals are seen essential, and as modifiers |
|
Planners basis is narrow |
Broad based planning |
|
Defined methodology essential |
Open general guiding principles are to be defined |
|
Has to fit a large scale scheme or plan |
Customized, uniquely tailored operating scheme |
|
Scale decided by economy/ or Investor |
Scale decided by the ability of the actors |
|
Large scale planning infrastructure needed |
Use of readily available infrastructure |
|
Plans are rigid, work on modular basis |
Flexible |
|
Fixed in time and scale |
Flexible |
|
Rational |
Reasonable |
|
Hierarchical planning structure |
Evolving Networked structure |
|
Predictable goals, measurable results |
Predictable goals, observable results |
|
Expensive Design |
Inexpensive evolution |
|
Time consuming |
Spontaneous, time constrained |
|
Quantity and Optimization orientated |
Quality and Affect Oriented |
|
Susceptible |
Sustainable |
|
Universal application possibility |
Contextual application possible |
|
Mathematical, mechanical, calculated |
Organic / intuitive approach |
|
Failure leads to large waste, Destruction of capital |
Failure leads to minor waste, regenerative Capital |
|
Wasteful in resources |
Conservation of resources |
|
Environmentally costly |
Environment friendly |
|
Coordinated planning |
Cooperative planning |
|
Control based governance |
Cooperation of community |
|
Planner centric |
Actors centric |
|
Needs formal theory |
No formal theory ( not yet) |
|
Planning as problem solution |
Planning as Creative action, play |
|
Directed from outside |
Guided from within |
|
Needs linear thinking |
Needs complex processing |
|
Organized, can lead to chaos |
Chaotic, can lead to Order |
|
Leads to competition / compliance |
Needs co-operation and consent |
|
Rule based |
Need based |
|
Vertical thinking |
Lateral thinking |
|
Can destroy community |
Can build community |
|
Pushed down / pushed up plan |
Pursuasive, accommodating approach |
|
Planners imagine needs of others |
Planners negotiate needs and wants |
|
Choices enforced |
Choices evolve |
|
Empowers state/ Monopolies |
Empower the actors |
|
Intelligent |
Emotive |
|
Can take long jumps |
Can take short steps |
Environment and Creativity
Spontaneous,
local, creative solutions help to evolve the combination of elements in this
process. It is essential to note that the cooperative movement could flourish
and succeed in Maharashtra and nowhere else in India. It is because Maharashtra
enjoys the most open social and cultural environment. It was the last state to
fall to the British Empire and first one to raise banner of freedom against it.
It was also a state that could exploit the best of western culture and
education. Presence of Mumbai as its state capital cannot be neglected. However
urban planners from the state, probably because of their urban bias, and have
neglected this rural phenomenon, or because the model does not fit the Modern
Mechanistic planning theory or because of both. Cooperative sector example can
be one source of new paradigm for planners and they can evolve new role for
themselves the way they evolved it in the last century at the advent of
Industrial Revolution.
“Creative
thinking is key capability that helps individuals and organizations deal with
and manage change, which is fundamental to the nature of planning process. As
change becomes more rapid and discontinuous, it is crucial that there are
people in the profession that are able to turn problems into opportunities
while acknowledging the contradictions. Often this involves seeing things from
different perspective and breaking away from the traditional ways of thinking
that may have lost their meaning. Critical reflection can help unlock
potential.” (Higgins and Morgan, 2000)
Conclusion
We have found it of paramount importance that in order
to progress we must recognize our ignorance and leave room for doubt.
-Richard Feynman
Planning profession is
facing doubts about its methodology and that is at the basis of dilemma. I
think the planners are intuitively aware of this phenomenon. Behind the
pretentious grand schemes, shiny mirrored facades and mindlessly designed urban
sprawl of affluence of developed world, Western Urban planners are trying to
hide the underlying unease since the decline of industrialism.
“There is strong feeling
among scientists that something dramatic is happening right now at the end of
the 20th century and on the verge of 21st. The rapid
demographic growth of human population, the associated rapid urban growth –
from 16 cities of over one million people at the turn of the century to over
500 such cities today, the seemingly contradictory conjunction between the
emerging global economy and global village, on the one hand and the parallel
emergence of cultural pluralism and localism, on the other, the internet, the
information highway, and the information city, suggested by Castells (1996),
the emergence of environmental problems, the green movements with no specific
inclination to traditional right viruses left, dichotomy that has dominated
society, social philosophy and politics over a century, and the very recent
realization that the environmental dilemma is essentially a dilemma of cities
and urbanism.” (Portugali 2000)
Dilemma is source of creativity.
Strands of Ahimsa, Wealth and Justice, (Sane 2000) the three supreme guiding
principles have great potential, with which planners can weave new Urbanism for
the future Human civilization.
1) Atwood D.W, 1992, Raising Cane. The political economy of Sugar in Western India. Westview press Inc. USA
2) Axelrod R.1984, The evolution of cooperation, Basic books Inc.Publishers. New York
3) Frankel F.R. 1978, Indian Political Economy 1947-1977, The gradual revolution. Oxford University press, Oxford
4) Freidman J. Planning as , Princton University press.
5) Hans Meyer, 1999, CITY AND PORT : Rotterdam, International books, the Netherlands
6) Higgins and Morgan
7) Portugali J. 2000, Self Organization and City. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg
8) Sane
R. 2000, Yugantar, (Marathi) From Socialist Capitalism to Labor based
Individualism Rule Rajhans Prakashan, Pune
Web Sites
Related to few organizations engaged in building India
Pratham: http://www.indianngos.com/presscoverage.htm,
http://www.indiatogether.org/stories/pratham.htm,
Annapurna Mahila Mandal: http://www.humanscapeindia.org/ngos/amm.htm
http://www.financialexpress.com/fe/daily/19990307/fle07048.html
MS Swaminathan: http://www.newindiadigest.com/swaminathan.htm
http://www.af-info.or.jp/eng/whatnew/hot/enrswa.html
Warana Nagar: http://www.businessworldindia.com/archive/990222/mktg4.htm
http://www.rediff.com/computer/1998/jul/06task.htm
Konkan railway Corporation: http://www.konkanrailway.com/eindex.htm
http://www.hindubusinessline.com/iw/2000/06/11/stories/0311c051.htm
Flyovers in Mumbai: http://www.msrdc.org/projects/50flyovers.html
http://www.centrumfinance.com/MSRTC.htm
Thane: the cleanest city in India: http://www.shubhyatra.com/htm/maharashtra/thane.htm
http://www.thanecity.com/openforum/messages/102.html
Cellular phone for fishermen: http://www.economictimes.com/100900/bn05.htm
Operation flood: http://www.amul.com/
http://www.indialine.com/net.columns/column54.html
http://www.webspawner.com/users/INDIAMILK/
Wada Pav: Mumbai: http://www.apnaguide.com/review/14566
http://www.apnaguide.com/review/15038
SEWA : Self Employed Women’s Association: http://www.sewa.org/academy.htm
http://ofcn.org/cyber.serv/teledem/pb/2000/apr/msg00020.html